Personality Theories And Assessment
These
different perspectives and concept can examine:
Ways we have in common: Identity parts, essential drives, phases of
improvement, classes of qualities
Ways we have in different : singular ways through stages, methods for
overseeing fundamental drives and needs, levels of Trait measurements
The Journey
○ The
Psychoanalytic Approach to Personality
○
The Humanistic Approach and the Social-Cognitive Approach to Personality
○
Attribute Theories of Personality and Personality Assessment
THE Psychoanalytic Approach to Personality
Freudian Classical Psychoanalytic Theory of Personality
Trait theories
As indicated by the diagnostic and
statistical manual of the american psychiatric association, identity attributes
are "noticeable parts of identity that are shown in an extensive variety
of vital social and individual settings." at the end of the day, people
have certain qualities which halfway decide their conduct. as indicated by the
hypothesis, an agreeable individual is probably going to act amicable in any
circumstance in view of identity attributes as a part of his identity.
Gordon allport depicted various types of attributes, which he likewise
called auras. focal qualities are essential to a person's identity, while
optional attributes are more fringe. normal qualities are those perceived
inside a culture and along these lines may change from culture to culture.
cardinal qualities are those by which an individual might be emphatically
perceived.
raymond cattell's exploration proliferated a two-layered identity
structure with sixteen "essential variables" (16 personality factors)
and five "optional components." an alternate model was proposed by
hans eysenck, who trusted that only three characteristics - extraversion,
neuroticism and psychoticism - were adequate to portray human identity.
contrasts amongst cattell and eysenck rose because of inclinations for various
types of factor investigation, with cattell utilizing slanted, eysenck
orthogonal, pivot to examine the elements that developed when identity surveys
were liable to measurable examination. expanding on crafted by cattell and
others, lewis goldberg proposed a five-measurement identity demonstrate,
nicknamed the "enormous five"
Psychodynamic
theories
Psychodynamic (also called psychoanalytic) theories
explain human behaviour in terms of interaction between the various components
of personality. Sigmund Freud was
the founder of this school. He broke the human personality down to three
significant components: the ego, superego, and
id. According to Freud, personality is shaped by the interactions of
these three components.
Behaviorists explain
personality in terms of reactions to external stimuli. This school of thought
was initiated by B. F. Skinner.
According to these theories, people's behaviour is formed by processes such
as operant
conditioning.
Humanistic
theories
In humanistic psychology, it is emphasized that people have free will and that they play an
active role in determining how they behave. Accordingly, humanistic psychology
focuses on subjective experiences of persons instead of factors that determine
behaviour. Abraham
Maslow and Carl
Rogers were proponents of this view。
HUMANISTIC THEORIES
Humanistic, or phenomenological, theories
of personality present a positive and optimistic view of human behaviour. In
complete contrast to theories from the psychodynamic tradition, people are
viewed as experiencing beings rather than victims of their unconscious
motivations and conflicts. So the emphasis here is on individual experiences,
relationships and ways of understanding the world. Fundamental to these theories
are the beliefs that everyone’s experience is unique, and the individual’s
perception of the world is critical to their understanding and behaviour.
Humanistic theories have formed the basis of many therapeutic procedures on
which modern counselling techniques are based.
THE DRIVE TO FULFIL POTENTIAL
Approval and self-actualization Carl Rogers
(1902–87) saw humans as intrinsically good and as having an innate desire for
self-improvement. He believed that self-concept is critical to our experience
of the world, and that this develops from the child’s perceptions of his
parents’ approval. Rogers believed that all people have a basic need for
positive regard – approval and love. How we feel about ourselves is determined
by how others react to or approve of us, and we tend to be unhappy if we feel
that others are not happy with us. According to Rogers, children develop
conditions of worth – criteria for what we must or must not do in order to gain
approval. Although this is essential to the socialization of children, Rogers
also argued that conditions of worth may interfere with personal development if
our sole objective is to gain approval from others. Experiencing unconditional
positive regard – love and affection – enables us to grow and to satisfy our
core tendency, which is to fulfil our potential by developing our capacities
and talents
PERSONAL CONSTRUCT THEORY
To examine how individuals view the world,
George Kelly (1905–67) developed personal construct theory. In contrast to the psychoanalytic
emphasis on the person as a victim of unconscious desires and impulses, this
humanistic theory portrays people as active hypothesis-generators. Personal
construct theory treats the individual as her own personal scientist, one who
is actively aware of how her own psychological world is constructed and
construed. By understanding how the individual perceives the world, we can
anticipate how they will behave within it and understand their reactions to
events. According to Kelly, trait theories (see below) try to locate the
individual on the personality theorists’ dimensions, whereas personal construct
theory looks at how people see and align events according to their own personal
dimensions. Kelly basically took the view that we are all scientists – so each
individual is continually categorizing, interpreting, labelling and judging
himself and his world. Each of us generates constructs and hypotheses, which
then help us to anticipate and control events in our lives.
TRAIT THEORIES – ASPECTS OF PERSONALITY
Traits
– or descriptors used to label personality – have their origins in the ways we
describe personality in everyday language. In the early years of personality
theory, many theorists used the term types to describe differences between
people. Sheldon (1954), for example, categorized people according to three body
types (see figure 14.5) and related these physical differences to differences
in personality. Endomorphic body types are plump and round with a tendency to
be relaxed and outgoing. Mesomorphic physiques are strong and muscular, and
usually energetic and assertive in personality. Ectomorphic body types are tall
and thin and tend to have a fearful and restrained personality. Not only is it
unlikely that personality can be mapped to body type, but the idea that all
people can be allocated to a small number of categories is challenged by modern
trait theories.
TRAIT THEORIES – ASPECTS OF PERSONALITY
Modern
theorists view traits as continuous rather than discrete entities. So, rather
than being divided into categories, people are placed on a trait continuum
representing how high or low each individual is on any particular dimension.
The assumption is that we all possess each of these traits to a greater or
lesser degree, and that comparisons can be made between people.
For example, categorizing people into separate
groups of ‘sociable’ versus ‘unsociable’ is considered to be meaningless.
Instead, it is considered more useful by trait theorists to determine the
amount of sociability each person exhibits. Personality theorists regard most
traits as forming a normal distribution, so some people will be very high in
sociability and others very low, but most people will be somewhere in the
middle.
CATTELL’S
16 TRAIT DIMENSIONS Gordon Allport (1897–1967) made the first comprehensive
attempt to develop a framework to describe personality using traits. Allport
and Odbert (1936) used Webster’s (1925) New International Dictionary to
identify terms that describe personality. This work was developed further by
Raymond Cattell (1905– 97), who used a statistical procedure called factor
analysis to determine the structure of personality. Factor analysis is a tool
for summarizing the relationships among sets of variables by identifying those
that co-vary and are different from other groups of variables (see chapter 13).
In personality theory, factor analysis can be used to identify which sets of
variables most simply and accurately reflect the structure of human
personality. Like Allport, Cattell believed that a useful source of information
about the existence of personality traits could be found in language, the
importance of a trait being reflected in how many words describe it. Cattell
called this the lexical criterion of importance.
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